> [Hebrews 6:4-6 NASB] 4 **For it is impossible, in the case of those who have once been enlightened and have tasted of the heavenly gift and have been made partakers of the Holy Spirit**, 5 **and have tasted the good word of God and the powers of the age to come**, 6 **and then have fallen away**, to restore them again to repentance, since they again crucify to themselves the Son of God and put Him to open shame. > [Hebrews 10:26-31 NASB] 26 For if we go on sinning willfully after receiving the knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins, 27 but a terrifying expectation of judgment and the fury of a fire which will consume the adversaries. 28 Anyone who has ignored the Law of Moses is put to death without mercy on the testimony of two or three witnesses. 29 How much more severe punishment do you think he will deserve who has trampled underfoot the Son of God, **and has regarded as unclean the blood of the covenant by which he was sanctified, and has insulted the Spirit of grace**? 30 For we know Him who said, “Vengeance is Mine, I will repay.” And again, “The Lord will judge His people.” 31 It is a terrifying thing to fall into the hands of the living God. > [2 Peter 2:20-22 NASB] 20 For if, **after they have escaped the defilements of the world by the knowledge of the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, they are again entangled in them and are overcome, the last state has become worse for them than the first**. 21 **For it would be better for them not to have known the way of righteousness, than having known it, to turn away from the holy commandment handed on to them**. 22 It has happened to them according to the true proverb, “A dog returns to its own vomit,” and, “A sow, after washing, returns to wallowing in the mire.” And other similar passages: > [Galatians 5:1-5 NASB] It was for freedom that Christ set us free; therefore **keep standing firm and do not be subject again to a yoke of slavery**. 2 Look! I, Paul, tell you that if you have yourselves circumcised, Christ will be of no benefit to you. 3 And I testify again to every man who has himself circumcised, that he is obligated to keep the whole Law. 4 **You have been severed from Christ**, you who are seeking to be justified by the Law; **you have fallen from grace**. 5 For we, through the Spirit, by faith, are waiting for the hope of righteousness. > [Luke 8:13 NASB] Those on the rocky soil are the ones who, when they hear, receive the word with joy; and yet these do not have a firm root; **they believe for a while**, **and in a time of temptation they fall away**. > [Matthew 13:20-21 NASB] 20 The one sown with seed on the rocky places, this is the one who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy; 21 yet he has no firm root in himself, **but is only temporary**, and when affliction or persecution occurs because of the word, **immediately he falls away**. > [John 15:5-6 NASB] 5 I am the vine, you are the branches; the one who remains in Me, and I in him bears much fruit, for apart from Me you can do nothing. 6 **If anyone does not remain in Me, he is thrown away like a branch and dries up; and they gather them and throw them into the fire, and they are burned**. > [Romans 11:18-22 NASB] 18 do not be arrogant toward the branches; but if you are arrogant, remember that it is not you who supports the root, but the root supports you. 19 You will say then, “Branches were broken off so that I might be grafted in.” 20 Quite right, they were broken off for their unbelief, but you stand by your faith. Do not be conceited, but fear; 21 for if God did not spare the natural branches, He will not spare you, either. 22 See then the kindness and severity of God: **to those who fell, severity, but to you, God’s kindness, if you continue in His kindness**; **for otherwise you too will be cut off**. > [1 Corinthians 9:24-27] 24 Do you not know that those who run in a race all run, but only one receives the prize? **Run in such a way that you may win**. 25 Everyone who competes in the games exercises self-control in all things. So they do it to obtain a perishable wreath, but we an imperishable. 26 Therefore I run in such a way as not to run aimlessly; I box in such a way, as to avoid hitting air; 27 **but I strictly discipline my body and make it my slave, so that, after I have preached to others, I myself will not be disqualified**. > [Revelation 3:5 NASB] The **one who overcomes** will be clothed the same way, in white garments; and **I will not erase his name from the book of life**, and I will confess his name before My Father and before His angels. > [Revelations 22:19 NASB] and if anyone takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy, **God will take away his part from the tree of life and from the holy city**, which are written in this book. How were passages typically quoted to refute OSAS interpreted by the early Church? You can find more passages here: * https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/87015/117426 * https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/12097/117426

Between Clement of Rome, Irenaeus, Polycarp, Papias, and Ignatius what are some actual doctrinal disagreements? In your response, please list the relevant writings of the Church Fathers with citations in the usual format such as "Cyprian, *Epistle* 54:14" (Author, *Book* chapter#:section#, see [helpful article](https://jimmyakin.com/2020/08/how-to-decode-mysterious-church-father-citations.html)) .

It's interesting that a person will claim passages were added at a later date without considering the textual evidence. A fragment of the Gospel of John dates in the first half of the second century. We have complete copies of John in the fourth century codices. My concern is answering arguments for parts of John being later additions before the fourth century. An example of evidence, Irenaeus of Lyons, in the late second century, quotes parts of the prolegomena that some question it being part of the original Gospel. >But what John really does say is this: "And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us; and we beheld His glory, the glory as of the only-begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth." *Irenaeus - Against Heresies book 1* http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/irenaeus-book1.html >John, however, does himself put this matter beyond all controversy on our part, when he says, "He was in this world, and the world was made by Him, and the world knew Him not. He came unto His own [things], and His own [people] received Him not." ... For when he had spoken of the Word of God as having been in the Father, he added, "All things were made by Him, and without Him was not anything made." ... For that according to John relates His original, effectual, and glorious generation from the Father, thus declaring, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." Irenaeus - *Against Heresies book 3* http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/irenaeus-book3.html I'm not concerned with John 7:53–8:11, which is not in the earliest manuscripts. The rest of the Gospel is consistent in language and subject matter. It does appear that John added chapter 21 as a postscript. Has someone already compiled this information for the Gospel of John?

According to [*Britannica*](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Apostolic-Father) : > *Apostolic Father*, any of the Greek Christian writers, several unknown, who were authors of early Christian works dating primarily from the late 1st and early 2nd centuries. Their works are the principal source for information about Christianity during the two or three generations following the Apostles.... > The Apostolic Fathers include St. Clement of Rome, St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Polycarp of Smyrna, Hermas, St. Barnabas, Papias, and the anonymous authors of the Didachē (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles), Letter to Diognetus, Letter of Barnabas, and Martyrdom of Polycarp. In Matt. 16:18 (D-R), it is written: > And I say to thee: That thou art Peter; and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. QUESTION: What did the (or at least some of) the Apostolic Fathers have to say about the meaning of "the gates of hell" in this verse? *Remark:* I may be wrong, but Matt. 16:18 might be the only place where "gates of hell" is directly mentioned in the New Testament. In the Old Testament, however, it (or something very much like it) is found on multiple occasions e.g., (from the *Douay-Rheims*): > I said: In the midst of my days I shall go to the gates of hell: I sought for the residue of my years. *(Is. 38:10)* --- with the gloss adding: *"Hell": Sheol, or Hades, the region of the dead.* > Their soul abhorred all manner of meat: and they drew nigh even to the gates of death. *(Ps. 107:18; see also verses 10, 14)* > Have mercy on me, O Lord: see my humiliation which I suffer from my enemies. Thou that liftest me up from the gates of death, that I may declare all thy praises in the gates of the daughter of Sion. *(Ps. 9:14-15)* Thank you.

Within the context of 14-18 >14 Therefore, beloved, since you are waiting for these, be diligent to be found by him without spot or blemish, and at peace. 15 And count the patience of our Lord as salvation, just as our beloved brother Paul also wrote to you according to the wisdom given him, 16 as he does in all his letters when he speaks in them of these matters. There are some things in them that are hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other Scriptures. 17 You therefore, beloved, knowing this beforehand, take care that you are not carried away with the error of lawless people and lose your own stability. 18 But grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To him be the glory both now and to the day of eternity. Amen. Q: What, if any, significance is conveyed by the appellative "our beloved brother Paul?"
Q: What wisdom is given to Paul?
Q: What are "these matters" Paul speaks of?
Q: What things are hard to understand?
Q: Who is ignorant and unstable?
Q: From the statement "knowing this beforehand," what "this" do we know?
Q: What is the error of lawless people?
Q: Is parsing this passage so granularly an example of twisting things to our destruction, i.e, is self-awareness dead?
Q: Does the remainder of the chapter 3 (or the first two chapters) provide additional context for understanding the final words in verses 14 to 18? **Chapter 3** >1 This is now the second letter that I am writing to you, beloved. In both of them I am stirring up your sincere mind by way of reminder, 2 that you should remember the predictions of the holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and Savior through your apostles, 3 knowing this first of all, that scoffers will come in the last days with scoffing, following their own sinful desires. 4 They will say, “Where is the promise of his coming? For ever since the fathers fell asleep, all things are continuing as they were from the beginning of creation.” 5 For they deliberately overlook this fact, that the heavens existed long ago, and the earth was formed out of water and through water by the word of God, 6 and that by means of these the world that then existed was deluged with water and perished. 7 But by the same word the heavens and earth that now exist are stored up for fire, being kept until the day of judgment and destruction of the ungodly. >8 But do not overlook this one fact, beloved, that with the Lord one day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day. 9 The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance. 10 But the day of the Lord will come like a thief, and then the heavens will pass away with a roar, and the heavenly bodies will be burned up and dissolved, and the earth and the works that are done on it will be exposed. >11 Since all these things are thus to be dissolved, what sort of people ought you to be in lives of holiness and godliness, 12 waiting for and hastening the coming of the day of God, because of which the heavens will be set on fire and dissolved, and the heavenly bodies will melt as they burn! 13 But according to his promise we are waiting for new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness dwells.

Polycarp is said to be a student of the Apostle John. Yet he never mentions it in his epistle, nor does he quote the Gospel of John. Why is that?

What is the basis for the belief that Ignatius of Antioch knew the Apostle John? This seems to be a traditional belief. For example, The Catholic Encyclopedia entry from 1910 says > "It is also believed, and with great probability, that, with his > friend Polycarp, he was among the auditors of the Apostle St. John." Yet it gives no explicit reason why it is believed with great probability. A Q & A answerer here says > "Ignatius of Antioch doesn't mention any personal connection to John > in his authentic letters. Irenaeus mentions that he met Polycarp, who > had known John and at least one other apostle, as he refers to > "apostles" in the plural being known to Polycarp (Against Heresies > 3.3). Ignatius did write letters to Polycarp and to the church at Smyrna. There are two letters of Ignatius to John preserved in Latin, > but these are universally recognized as forgeries dated to the middle > ages. **There's no reliable evidence to connect Ignatius directly with > any of the apostles. So, as you say, this is likely a case of > "tradition based on forgery."**" Is this correct - is the idea that Ignatius of Antioch knew the Apostle John based solely on forged letters?

When it comes to determining when an early church father lived, how do we know the range of years when they lived? As far as I know, even for popular church fathers like Irenaeus or Papias, we don't have many copies of their manuscripts and ones that we do have are relatively recent.

I suppose this question is a bit twofold: I'm wondering what Churches the Apostles are historically held to have founded, and in what places; and I'm also wondering who are the men historically held to have succeeded the Apostles as the leaders of these churches, before and after the Apostles' deaths? Do we have any contemporary record of this succession? Are any of the successors Church Fathers? Ultimately I'm interested in looking further into what, if anything, remains of the teaching of these early successors, and what their respective particular Churches express in common of the faith, or on which elements they lay special stress. Thank you for your help! Dan

Nothing to add to the title: did any Apostolic or Ante-Nicene Fathers believe that Jesus was a created being? ______ Related questions: - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/43266/50422 - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/82496/50422

The [Apostolic Fathers](https://www.gotquestions.org/Apostolic-Fathers.html) is a special group of church fathers who personally knew or taught by the apostles. Some of [their writings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers#List_of_works) were even considered to be included in the canon although ultimately they were not. In a way they are like the 2nd generation apostles who can give us some clues on the 1st generation apostles's understanding and teaching. The purpose of this question is to trace the development of the early church teachings about Christ between the New Testament books and the Christological formulations in the [Nicene creed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed) (as the 2nd person of the Trinity) and the [Chalcedonian definition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonian_Definition) (the double nature of Jesus as fully God and fully human). What we can learn from the answer is whether the Trinitarian and Chalcedonian formulas about Christ **organically** developed from the apostles's understanding of the divinity of Jesus, which were not fully explicit in the New Testament. Even so, we can already see the hints of the doctrines from the NT books (for example, see [this answer](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/78056/god-the-son-where-does-he-fit-in/78060#78060) for 2 resources discussing it). Among the proponents of *sola scriptura*, it is commonly established that more precise formulation was motivated to combat heresies (such as Docetism, Gnosticism, Modalism, Arianism, etc.), but the generations after the apostles did NOT introduce new elements into the final formulation. In other words, those post apostolic generations made use of Greek philosophical terms and EXTENDED the meanings of those terms to make the council formulas (because the *reality* of Christological revelation pushed the limits of available language and concepts to describe it faithfully). *Sola Scriptura* proponents **reject** the reverse: that the church fathers introduced foreign Greek philosophical teachings into the formulas. Examining the Apostolic Fathers's writings can potentially make this case. Accepted answer should include quotes from their writings and a brief analysis showing the continuity (if exists) between the NT books and the 2 council documents. We can then see the *nature* of this continuity, whether foreign Greek philosophical elements have smuggled themselves into the formulas.

Ignatius of Antioch is one of the Apostolic Church Fathers - one of 4 from whom we have significant writings (along with Pope Clement I, Polycarp of Smyrna, and Papias of Hierapolis). Of the 4, the case for understanding Jesus as God amongst the Apostolic Church Fathers seems strongest with Ignatius (with the others, it seems weak, relying almost solely on a single textual variant in Polycarp's Letter to the Philippians, see here ). Ignatius' Letter to the Ephesians seems the strongest in this of his writings. Consider the greeting > "The source of your unity and election is genuine suffering which you > undergo by the will of the Father and of Jesus Christ, our God." or section 7 > "There is only one physician — of flesh yet spiritual, born yet > unbegotten, God incarnate" or section 18 > "For our God, Jesus the Christ, was conceived by Mary" or section 19 > "for God was revealing himself as a man" How do Unitarians understand Ignatius' views - did he assert that Jesus was Almighty God, a god, or neither? Secondly, do Unitarians think his views are representative of the early Church?

Motivated by a [related question](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/80656/are-there-any-biblical-examples-of-early-church-disciples-praying-to-deceased-sa) , I would like to know if there is any historical evidence that the early church believed in the doctrine of [intercession of saints](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercession_of_saints) during the [1st](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_century) and [2nd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_century) centuries AD.

When it comes to controversial doctrines, I have a tendency to pay attention to what the early Church had to say on the subject. Of course, the most important early Church writings are compiled in the New Testament, and, therefore, the New Testament should be the first thing to study (together with the Old Testament). In fact, that's exactly what most denominations do. That said, there are certain topics in which the Bible is not as crystal clear as we would like it to be, leaving the door open for different --and sometimes even irreconcilable-- interpretations. When this happens, I personally think that it is a good idea to inform ourselves about what the apostolic fathers and other extra-biblical early Church authors had to say on the matter, especially if they were direct disciples of or at least not too many generations away from the primary sources, i.e. the apostles. In light of this, I was wondering if there are any denominations that have adopted any practice along these lines. **Question**: Are there any denominations that defend their doctrines (or at least, the ones which are most controversial) by appealing to extra-biblical evidence from the 1st/2nd century of the early Church? _________________________ Responding to concerns raised in the comments: *I think the question could be improved by giving examples of the "more or less ambiguous" passages and asking specifically about those. Currently the question invites a frame challenge because no denomination will accept the ambiguity: all will come down on one side or the other.* Below some examples: - [Mark 13:29-30](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+13%3A29-30&version=ESV) , [Matthew 16:28](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+16%3A28&version=ESV) , [Matthew 24:34](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=matthew+24%3A34&version=ESV) , [Revelation 1:1](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation+1%3A1&version=ESV) , [Revelation 22:6-21](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2022%3A6-21&version=ESV) . These passages include expressions such as 'this generation' and 'soon', that full preterists claim to be indicative of an early second coming. Of course, everyone else disagrees. What did the early Church have to say about this discussion? - [1 Corinthians 13:8-9](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Corinthians+13%3A8-9&version=ESV) . This passage is commonly cited by Cessationists to argue that the sign gifts have ceased. Of course, Continuationists disagree with this interpretation. What did the early Church have to say about this discussion? - [Colossians 2:16-17](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=colossians+2%3A16-17&version=ESV) . This passage is commonly cited to argue that Christians no longer have to keep the Sabbath or the Feast Days. Of course, Sabbatarians and denominations that still keep the Feast Days are against this interpretation. What did the early Church have to say on this? - There are doctrines such as Intercession of Saints that [lack a biblical basis](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/80656/50422) , yet certain denominations endorse them. What was the early Church's position on doctrines like these? - Other controversial topics: - Trinitarianism vs Unitarianism vs other views of the Godhead. - Christology (is Jesus divine, did Jesus pre-exist, etc.). - Pneumatology (is the Holy Spirit a person, etc.). - Etc.

In the context of related debates such as: - [Bipartite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipartite_(theology)) vs. [Tripartite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_(theology)) natures of man, - [Soul sleep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_mortalism) vs. Consciousness during the [intermediate state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_state) , and - [Annihilationism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annihilationism) / [Conditional immortality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_conditionalism) vs. [Immortality of the Soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality#Religious_views) , I think it would be quite helpful to know the views held by the Apostolic Fathers, as they had the unique privilege of receiving direct or almost direct teaching from the Apostles themselves. I checked the site assuming someone had probably already asked a similar question in the past, but I'm a bit surprised to say that it appears no one has (please let me know if I overlooked something), so here we go: **Question**: What is an overview of beliefs held by the Apostolic Fathers regarding the state of the dead and the afterlife? What happens when (and after) we die according to the Apostolic Fathers? **Note**: by [Apostolic Fathers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers) I mean: > [...] core Christian theologians among the Church Fathers who lived in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, who are believed to have personally known some of the Twelve Apostles, or to have been significantly influenced by them. ____ See the answers to this [question](https://hermeneutics.stackexchange.com/q/73790/38524) for an example of an intense exegetical debate on these controversial subject matters. See also this recently asked [question](https://hermeneutics.stackexchange.com/q/73816/38524) for another ongoing debate. _____ Related: https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/81207/50422

What did the Apostolic Fathers, Ante-Nicene Fathers and the Ante-Nicene Church in general believe about the continuation of the office of Prophet? Were they cessationists or continuationists with respect to the office of Prophet? Can this be reliably answered from the historical records of the Ante-Nicene period of the Church? ___ **Appendix - NT passages on Prophets** > 19 So then you are no longer strangers and aliens, but you are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, 20 **built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets**, Christ Jesus himself being the cornerstone, 21 in whom the whole structure, being joined together, grows into a holy temple in the Lord. 22 In him you also are being built together into a dwelling place for God by the Spirit. (Ephesians 2:19-22 ESV) > 11 **And he gave the apostles, the prophets**, the evangelists, the shepherds and teachers, 12 to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, 13 until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ, 14 so that we may no longer be children, tossed to and fro by the waves and carried about by every wind of doctrine, by human cunning, by craftiness in deceitful schemes. (Ephesians 4:11-14 ESV) > 27 Now you are the body of Christ and individually members of it. 28 **And God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets**, third teachers, then miracles, then gifts of healing, helping, administrating, and various kinds of tongues. 29 Are all apostles? **Are all prophets?** Are all teachers? Do all work miracles? 30 Do all possess gifts of healing? Do all speak with tongues? Do all interpret? 31 But earnestly desire the higher gifts. (1 Corinthians 12:27-30 ESV) > Pursue love, and earnestly desire the spiritual gifts, **especially that you may prophesy**. (1 Corinthians 14:1 ESV) > 8 On the next day we departed and came to Caesarea, and we entered the house of Philip the evangelist, who was one of the seven, and stayed with him. 9 **He had four unmarried daughters, who prophesied**. 10 While we were staying for many days, **a prophet named Agabus** came down from Judea. 11 And coming to us, he took Paul's belt and bound his own feet and hands and said, “Thus says the Holy Spirit, ‘This is how the Jews at Jerusalem will bind the man who owns this belt and deliver him into the hands of the Gentiles.’” (Acts 21:8-11 ESV) ___ **Related questions** - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/90529/50422 - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/86076/50422 - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/59538/50422 - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/84305/50422

What did the Apostolic Fathers, Ante-Nicene Fathers and the Ante-Nicene Church in general believe about the continuation of the office of Apostle? Were they cessationists or continuationists with respect to the office of Apostle? Can this be reliably answered from the historical records of the Ante-Nicene period of the Church? ___ **Appendix - NT passages on Apostles** > 19 So then you are no longer strangers and aliens, but you are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, 20 **built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets**, Christ Jesus himself being the cornerstone, 21 in whom the whole structure, being joined together, grows into a holy temple in the Lord. 22 In him you also are being built together into a dwelling place for God by the Spirit. (Ephesians 2:19-22 ESV) > 11 **And he gave the apostles**, the prophets, the evangelists, the shepherds and teachers, 12 to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, 13 until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ, 14 so that we may no longer be children, tossed to and fro by the waves and carried about by every wind of doctrine, by human cunning, by craftiness in deceitful schemes. (Ephesians 4:11-14 ESV) > 27 Now you are the body of Christ and individually members of it. 28 **And God has appointed in the church first apostles**, second prophets, third teachers, then miracles, then gifts of healing, helping, administrating, and various kinds of tongues. 29 **Are all apostles?** Are all prophets? Are all teachers? Do all work miracles? 30 Do all possess gifts of healing? Do all speak with tongues? Do all interpret? 31 But earnestly desire the higher gifts. (1 Corinthians 12:27-30 ESV) ___ **Related questions** - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/90559/50422 - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/86076/50422 - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/90502/50422

Do any denominations consider the writings of any [Apostolic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers) or [ante-Nicene](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers) Father to be inspired and authoritative to establish doctrines? If so, what criteria are used to make such a determination?

**Gehenna according to [Strong's Concordance](https://biblehub.com/greek/1067.htm)** > geenna: **Gehenna**, a valley W. and South of Jer., **also a symbolic name for the final place of punishment of the ungodly** Original Word: γέεννα, ης, ἡ Part of Speech: Noun, Feminine Transliteration: geenna Phonetic Spelling: (gheh'-en-nah) Definition: **Gehenna, a valley west and South of Jerusalem, also a symbolic name for the final place of punishment of the ungodly** Usage: **Gehenna, and originally the name of a valley or cavity near Jerusalem, a place underneath the earth, a place of punishment for evil.** _____ **Gehenna in the Gospels** The Gospels record multiple instances of Jesus warning very emphatically about the severe punishment that awaits those who would not repent from their sins and depart from their wicked ways. Their final destination will be Gehenna: the final place of punishment of the ungodly. - 22 but I -- I say to you, that every one who is angry at his brother without cause, shall be in danger of the judgment, and whoever may say to his brother, Empty fellow! shall be in danger of the sanhedrim, and whoever may say, Rebel! shall be in danger of **the gehenna of the fire**. [Matthew 5:22 YLT] - 29 \`But, if thy right eye doth cause thee to stumble, pluck it out and cast from thee, for it is good to thee that one of thy members may perish, and not **thy whole body be cast to gehenna**. [Matthew 5:29 YLT] - 30 \`And, if thy right hand doth cause thee to stumble, cut it off, and cast from thee, for it is good to thee that one of thy members may perish, and not **thy whole body be cast to gehenna**. [Matthew 5:30 YLT] - 28 `And be not afraid of those killing the body, and are not able to kill the soul, **but fear rather Him who is able both soul and body to destroy in gehenna**. [Matthew 10:28 YLT] - 9 `And if thine eye doth cause thee to stumble, pluck it out and cast from thee; it is good for thee one-eyed to enter into the life, rather than having two eyes to **be cast to the gehenna of the fire**. [Matthew 18:9 YLT] - 15 `Wo to you, Scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because ye go round the sea and the dry land to make one proselyte, and whenever it may happen -- **ye make him a son of gehenna twofold more than yourselves**. [Matthew 23:15 YLT] - 33 \`Serpents! brood of vipers! how may ye escape from **the judgment of the gehenna**? [Matthew 23:33 YLT] - 43 \`And if thy hand may cause thee to stumble, cut it off; it is better for thee maimed to enter into the life, than having the two hands, to **go away to the gehenna, to the fire -- the unquenchable --** 44 **where there worm is not dying, and the fire is not being quenched**. 45 `And if thy foot may cause thee to stumble, cut it off; it is better for thee to enter into the life lame, than having the two feet to **be cast to the gehenna, to the fire -- the unquenchable --** 46 **where there worm is not dying, and the fire is not being quenched**. 47 And if thine eye may cause thee to stumble, cast it out; it is better for thee one-eyed to enter into the reign of God, than having two eyes, **to be cast to the gehenna of the fire** -- 48 **where their worm is not dying, and the fire is not being quenched**; 49 for every one **with fire** shall be salted, and every sacrifice with salt shall be salted. [Mark 9:43-49 YLT] - 5 but I will show to you, whom ye may fear; Fear him who, after the killing, is having authority **to cast to the gehenna**; yes, I say to you, Fear ye Him. [Luke 12:5 YLT] James refers to Gehenna too: - 6 and the tongue [is] a fire, the world of the unrighteousness, so the tongue is set in our members, which is spotting our whole body, and is setting on fire the course of nature, and is **set on fire by the gehenna**. [James 3:6 YLT] ____ **The Lake of Fire in Revelation** The Book of Revelation offers similar descriptions of a Lake of Fire, where the Devil, his angels, and everyone who rebelled against God or died in unrepentant sin will be thrown into. The similarities are such that we can reasonably conclude that *the Lake of Fire* of Revelation and the *Gehenna* of Jesus are the same place. - 20 and the beast was taken, and with him the false prophet who did the signs before him, in which he led astray those who did receive the mark of the beast, and those who did bow before his image; **living they were cast -- the two -- to the lake of the fire, that is burning with brimstone**; [Revelation 19:20 YLT] - 10 and the Devil, who is leading them astray, was **cast into the lake of fire and brimstone**, where [are] the beast and the false prophet, **and they shall be tormented day and night -- to the ages of the ages**. [Revelation 20:10 YLT] - 14 and the death and the hades **were cast to the lake of the fire -- this [is] the second death**; 15 and if any one was not found written in the scroll of the life, **he was cast to the lake of the fire**. [Revelation 20:14-15 YLT] - 8 and to fearful, and unstedfast, and abominable, and murderers, and whoremongers, and sorcerers, and idolaters, and all the liars, **their part [is] in the lake that is burning with fire and brimstone, which is a second death**.' [Revelation 21:8 YLT] _________ **Tying this to the Early Church** As we can see, Gehenna is mentioned in most of the Gospels, which are among the earliest and most reliable Christian manuscripts in terms of authorship attribution (see [this answer](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/a/89662/50422)) . Moreover, the concept of an end-times fiery place of punishment symbolized by Gehenna was reinforced even more with the release of the Book of Revelation by the Apostle John. What does this mean? It means that the Early Church was surely aware from the very onset of *Gehenna* and the Apostolic teaching on the *Second Death*. They had to know. The subject was so important to Jesus that he brought it up in his preaching on numerous occasions, and early documents such as the Gospels & Revelation definitely contributed to the propagation of this teaching. _______ **Question** What did the Early Church (in the ante-Nicene period) believe about *Gehenna* and the *Second Death*? To help guide the discussion, here are some specific questions that would be interesting to answer: - What did the Apostolic Fathers believe about *Gehenna* and the *Second Death*? - What did the Ante-Nicene Fathers believe about *Gehenna* and the *Second Death*? - What about other extra-biblical documents from this period on this topic? - Did the Early Church believe in eternal conscious torment? - Did the Early Church believe in eternal conscious separation? - Did the Early Church believe in Annihilationism? ____________________ **Related questions** - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/89518/50422 - https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/89140/50422

The process of formation of the Biblical canon(s) demonstrably required lots and lots of human intervention, judgement and discernment by the Early Church over the course of several centuries. According to [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon) : > With the potential exception of the Septuagint, **the apostles did not leave a defined set of scriptures; instead the canon of both the Old Testament and the New Testament developed over time**. Different denominations recognize different lists of books as canonical, **following various church councils and the decisions of leaders of various churches**. > > For mainstream Pauline Christianity (growing from proto-orthodox Christianity in pre-Nicene times) which books constituted the Christian biblical canons of both the Old and New Testament was generally established by the 5th century, despite some scholarly disagreements, for the ancient undivided Church (the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions, before the East–West Schism). The Catholic canon was set at the Council of Rome (382). > > In the wake of the Protestant Reformation, the Council of Trent (1546) affirmed the Vulgate as the official Catholic Bible in order to address changes Martin Luther made in his recently completed German translation which was based on the Hebrew language Tanakh in addition to the original Greek of the component texts. The canons of the Church of England and English Presbyterians were decided definitively by the Thirty-Nine Articles (1563) and the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), respectively. The Synod of Jerusalem (1672) established additional canons that are widely accepted throughout the Eastern Orthodox Church. > > Various forms of Jewish Christianity persisted until around the fifth century, and canonicalized very different sets of books, including Jewish–Christian gospels which have been lost to history. These and many other works are classified as New Testament apocrypha by Pauline denominations. > > The Old and New Testament canons did not develop independently of each other and most primary sources for the canon specify both Old and New Testament books. For the biblical scripture for both Testaments, canonically accepted in major traditions of Christendom, see [biblical canon § canons of various traditions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon#Canons_of_various_Christian_traditions) . Despite the obvious high levels of human intervention that were required, the overwhelming majority of Christians believe that some specific Biblical canon is divinely inspired, and that the process that led to its formation is trustworthy. And yet, almost paradoxically, many of these Christians are also skeptical of the writings of the Apostolic & Ante-Nicene Fathers, even in matters where there is broad agreement (e.g. [the deity of Christ](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/82496/50422) , [post-mortal consciousness](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/q/89518/50422) , etc.). **Question**: What is the epistemological basis for trusting some specific Biblical canon and, at the same time, being skeptical of the writings of the Apostolic & Ante-Nicene Fathers? How do such Christians know that the process that led to the formation of some specific canon is trustworthy but the writings of the Apostolic & Ante-Nicene Fathers are not, even if there is broad agreement among them?